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Cinema of the Middle East refers to the past and present of middle eastern film industries. More precisely, it refers to the historical events leading up to the inception of cinema in the middle east, notable work done by country, and the current state and infrastructure of the film industry in the region.

Middle Eastern countries refers to the sizeable industries of Egypt, Iran, and Turkey. By definition, it also covers the film industries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Palestine, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

Overview[edit]

For each Middle Eastern country is a different and distinctive history culture of cinema which differs in both history and current infrastructure. Its history comprises of key events and trigger points which led to the inception or emergence of cinema, its making and exhibition, in the Middle East. Its infrastructure defines the current institution and/or systems in place which facilitate the financing/development/exhibition of cinema, locally or internationally. Although cinema incepted the MENA region later than France, Britain or the US, it still benefits.

For the purpose of this article, MENA countries are defined as the Arab countries in question. Its timespan of study ranges from early cinema to contemporary modern and post-modern cinema.

Lebanon[edit]

History of the Industry[edit]

The history of film in Lebanon goes back to the 1880s[1]. Two years after the Lumière Brothers publicly projected their first film in December of 1885 (Paris, France), they began sending traveling representatives to tour different countries to show their movies. One of the cities that they visited was Lebanon's capital city, Beirut [1]. Several years later, in 1909, the first movie theater was opened in the same city by the Pathé Frères. These events helped cultivate a film-viewing culture into the country [1]. Eventually, Jordano Pidutti, who was Italian driver to a well-known Lebanese family (who was fluent in Arabic and spent several years in the country) directed the first-ever silent film in Lebanon - The Adventures of Elias Mabrouk (1929) [2]. With the arrival of sound came many developments in Lebanese film production. In 1933, Lumar Film Company, the first ever-film production company opened and was funded by Herta Gargour, a Lebanese woman. The technicians of the company were trained by Pathé Studios in France[3]. By 1934, Lumar Film Company created the first Arabic-speaking Lebanese film, In the Ruins of Baalbak. This film was also the first to be completely created in an Arab country (including film development). After a five year pause in progress, studios such as Studio Al-Arz and Studio Haroun started and had all the necessary equipment to make movies in the 1950s. Although the 50s, was when these films included countryside locations and the Lebanese dialect, they flopped commercially [3]. As a result, studios started create films that were similar to the Egyptian melodramatic and bedouin films, which were doing great at the time. Moreover, at this time, Egyptian filmmakers started going to Lebanon to film especially after the Egyptian revolution of 1952 and the political stability of Lebanon at the time [4]. This lead to films that did not have a distinct Lebanese identity since Lebanese filmmakers were trying to imitate the success of Egyptian films while Egyptian filmmakers were creating their same old Egyptian films in Lebanon. In fact, between 1963 and 1970 there were a 100 films produced in Lebanon, and from them 54 were in the Egyptian dialect [3].

Following the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), cinema infrastructure and many of the film reels were destroyed. The Egyptian filmmakers went back to Egypt since it was more politically stable especially following the end of the film ideology set by the public film sector [1]. The Civil War in Lebanon brought more complications to filmmaking, especially when it came to resources. Here, the focus was creating commercial films for television. This included, entertainment shows for comedy, news reels, political documentaries (which were read by viewers differently depending on which political party they supported), and melodramas that were usually knock-offs of popular films [1]. One film medium, that became incredibly popular during the war, was the viewing and creation of films through home video [2]. This lead to the film West Beyrouth (Ziad Doueiri, 1998), to be a very popular feature film amongst Lebanese people at the time. The film highlighted the war through a narrative that combined clips and elements of home video with a conventional film (in a Lebanese Dialect).This kickstarted Lebanese cinema into a renaissance period and helped solve the identity crisis [2].

Lebanon's modern film industry has only become more developed and more productive since then. Its current infrastructure (2019) includes some of the biggest and most numerous film institutions and funding bodies such AFAC (Arab Fund for Arts and Culture), Al Mawred (government), and Zoomal (crowd funding), and more[5]. As for film festivals, Lebanon hosts the annual Beirut International Film Festival [6] alongside less notable film festivals. As a result, by 2016 Lebanon has been one of the leading countries in cinema production. Though, due to a lack of mainstream infrastructure and bodies which support more independent cinema, it leads on independent movies front by producing 20% of Arab independent cinema a year. [7]

In recent years, two Lebanese films have been, nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, The Insult (Ziad Doueiri 2017) and Capernaum (Nadine Labaki, 2018) [8].


Notable Directors and Films[edit]

Notable Directors Notable Films Notes
Jordano Pidutti The Adventures of Elias Mabrouk (1929) First film made in Lebanon.
The Adventures of Abu Abd (1931) Second film made in Lebanon.

First film with Lebanese Funding.

Julio De Luca In the Ruins of Baalbak (1934) First film with sound.

First film made completely in an Arab country.

Ali Al-Ariss The Florist (1943) First Lebanese-directed film.

Contians Egyptian dialect.

George Kai Remorse (1953)
Ziad Doueri West Beyrouth (1998)
The Insult (2017) First film to be nominated for an Academy Award.
Nadine Labaki Capernaum (2018) Nominated for Academy Award.

Jordan[edit]

History of the Industry[edit]

The first cinema that there is a record of in Jordan was the Petra Cinema in 1935. However, it is said that there was a cinema called 'Abu Siyah' in the 1920s and one of the first films it screened were Charlie Chaplin's silent films [9]. As opposed to Egypt and Lebanon, joined the film industry much later, with their first films. The reason was most likely due to the fact that they got their independence from the British mandate in 1946 [10]. The first film to be created in Jordan was Struggle in Jerash, being released eleven years later in 1957. The film was set in Jordan and Palestine and was a romance film (especially since these films were popular in Egypt at the time). To this day, this film is used as a reference to how Jordan and Palestine looked like in the 1950s. This film also tried to introduce the idea of Jordanian nationalism. In fact, at one point in the film, the female love interest, Maria, says, "As long as I am by you I feel like I am home." The male love interest, Atif, replies "you are truly home," and then Maria says, "It's true, I was born in Jordan" [11]. It was directed by the Jordanian director, Wasif Al-Shaikh and was filmed by the Palestinian refugee, Ibrahim Hassan Sirhan, who created many documentary-styled films in Palestine in the years before. Historians disagree over whether this was documentary or narrative film, because it uses elements of both [12]. In 1964, A Storm on Petra by the Egyptian director, Farooq Ajrama was created [13]. This film was a collaboration between the film industries of Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and Italy, and was distributed internationally.

Since then, only four new films were made[14]. Instead, there were more Western studios that were filming in Jordan in order to use Wadi Rum and other desert-like areas as locations for many of their films. Some of the more famous examples include, Lawrence of Arabia (1962) and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) [15]. Years later, the Adul Hameed Shoman Foundation was founded in 1989 to help cultivate a cinema culture of Arab films in an attempt to establish the film industry in Jordan [16]. Moreover, in 2003 the Royal Film Commission was established that was also an attempt to encourage the production of Jordanian films [15]. As a result, more Jordanian films were being produced including, the 2014 Academy Award nominee, Theeb, Captain Abu Raed (2008), and 3000 Nights (2016) which was a recipient of the Royal Film Commission's Fund [17].

Its Commission fund is central to its contemporary film infrastructure and serves as a backdrop for Arab Cinema as a whole through a grants programm, support for local filmmakers and an established series of workshops[18]. Increasingly, Jordan has been capitalising on its unique landscapes as ideal film location (especially wadi rum) and is now becoming a go to destination for Hollywood prestige pictures which around the world such as Lawrence of Arabia, The Martian, or even Star Wars: Rogue One. [19] Therefore, natural landscapes can be considered an essential part of Jordan's film infrastructure because it enables the import of internationally acclaimed film productions.

Notable Directors and Films[edit]

Notable Directors Notable Films Notes
Wasif Al-Shaikh Struggle in Jerash (1957) First narrative film in Jordan
Farooq Ajrama A Storm on Petra (1964)
Amin Matalqa Captain Abu Raed (2008)
Naji Abu Nowar Theeb (2014) First film to be nominated for an Academy Award.
Mai Masri 3000 Nights (2016)

Egypt[edit]

History of the Industry[edit]

Egypt's history of film started a few months following the Lumière Brothers' first film screening in Europe. In 1896, their film was taken to Egypt and was screened exclusively to a group of Egyptians in the Schneider Baths, Alexandria [3]. A year later in the same city, the Cinematographe Lumière, was opened and had recurring screenings of the films. Egypt was one of the few countries of the Arab world to be able to establish a film industry during their colonization. However, the types of films that were shot in Egypt at the time were more direct-cinema-styled documentaries or news reels[11]. Eventually, they did more of these films/reels and also began creating short films. In 1906, Felix Mesguich, who worked for the Lumière Brothers, went to Egypt to film a short film on his camera for them. The film-viewing audience in Egypt kept growing until in 1908 there were a total of eleven movie theaters in the country[20]. One of the french theaters, brought in a camera and photographer to create local news reels to play exclusively in their own theater to compete with the other theaters . With this growing interest in film, Italian investors opened STICA film company in the city that was to be the hub of of film, Alexandria, in 1917[11]. Eventually, they shut down due to their low-quality films and the unfamiliarity of the producers with the Egyptian environment. One of the three films they created featured verses from the Muslim Qur'an vertically inverted which lead it to being banned by officials [11]. Furthermore, their films had Italian actors and directors which did not help their case. With time, more films and newsreels were created. In 1926, the Lebanese Lama brothers came back from Argentina with their cameras and began creating Western-styled films in the deserts of Egypt [20]. Up until this point, Egyptians were not happy that most of the films that were created were not done by Egyptians and featured Western actors in an Egyptian setting [3]. Finally, the film, Layla (1927) was vastly popular because it was produced by an Egyptian theater actress, Aziza Amir and featured a narrative that was familiar to most Egyptian audiences. Therefore, this film was considered by many the first Egyptian film (even though it was directed by a Turkish director) and was the first film to be produced by a woman [15]. This marked the beginning of the national cinema in Egypt.

Following this there was a peak in Egyptian film production. "From 1927 to 1930 two full-length films were produced a year, five films were released in 1931 and six in both 1933 and 1934" [11]. Although all these films were created independently, in 1935, Studio Misr was founded and was followed by six more studios from 1936 to 1948. Studio Misr did not dominate the industry, but was one of the big factors that launched Egyptian cinema (including their decision to move production Alexandria to Cairo) [3]. During this time, Egypt was the strongest Arab country that made films, which many countries in the Middle East looked up to. Some of the Arab countries would attempt to copy the Egyptian melodramatic formulas and would even make the film in the Egyptian dialect [2]. With time, there were many changes that lead to many Egyptian filmmakers to start gradually making their movies in Lebanon instead . First, the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 made it less stable politically in Egypt [1]. Second, the Nationalization of the film industry (1962) in Egypt slowly brought more restrictions to the films until the film censorship laws that were issued in 1976. The Egyptian presence in Lebanon impacted the Lebanese film output. Between 1963 and 1970, half of the movies that were produced in Lebanon were in the Egyptian dialect [2]. Eventually, the Egyptians moved back to Egypt due to the civil war in Lebanon. Following the censorship in Egypt, there was an increased sense of morality and modesty on screen (from the late 60s to the 80s). These constraints lead a change in film movements from romance and love stories to new realist and melodramatic realism[21]. This wave impacted many of the films from today. According to Ibrahim Farghali, an Egyptian journalist, "To me, the Egypt of today seems influenced by the ’68 movement in its call for change, the surmounting of traditional values, and liberation from oppression, whether political, social, ethical, or religious" [22]. More recently, the film The Square (2013) which was a documentary about the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. It was also nominated for the Academy Awards as Best Foreign Film [23].

Although Egypt's film industry is not as powerful as it was before due to growing financial issues[24], it still dominates the Arab Cinema output especially in mainstream cinema where it outputs up to 77% of the films[25]. That is because of an already established ecosystem for Egyptian cinema that saw its rise in the 1960s. Today, it includes leading regional players such as the distribution company MAD solutions.[26] In addition to that, Egypt hosts a variety of film festivals which help sustain the local film culture, including notable regional festivals such as the El Gouna film festival, which boasts an impressive lineup of stars every year. [27]

Notable Directors and Films[edit]

Notable Directors Notable Films Notes
Mohammad Karim Zeinab (1930) First Egyptian feature film.
Yousef Chahine (also the lead actor) Cairo Station (1958) Marks a significant phase for Egyptian cinematic realism.
Chadi Abdelssalam The Mummy (also known as The Night of Count-ing the Years) (1969)
Atef El-Tayeb The Bus Driver (1983) Often mentioned to highlight the start of the New Realist movement.
Jehane Noujaim The Square (2013) First film to be nominated for an Academy Award.

Palestine[edit]

History of the Industry[edit]

Film in Palestine began when the Lumière brothers sought out to receive 'exotic' shots of Palestine as the proclaimed 'Holy Land' they used this in their film La Palestina en 1896 (1897) [11]. This film was simply observational footage of people living their everyday lives in Palestine. In 1900, the films of the Lumière brothers were screened in Europa Hotel in the city of Jerusalem [3] and in 1908, Egyptian Jews opened a cinema in Jerusalem called, Oracle [3]. Similar to Egypt and Lebanon, the first film made in Palestine was actually not made by Palestinians at all. It was called The First Film of Palestine (1911) made by Morey Rosenberg and was used to perpetuate Zionist propaganda and the idea of Palestine being a "a land without people for a people without land"[28]. As for actual first Palestinian films, similar to the rest of the Arab world, they were direct-cinema-styled documentaries or travelogues. In the theaters, there was a law issued by the government in 1929 called the The Moving Pictures Act, which censored films that contained immoral actions and behaviors that may in any way negatively impact the audience [28].

In 1935, Ibrahim Hassan Sirhan (who would later go and become the cinematographer of Jordan's first feature film Struggle in Jerash) documented a 20 minute film on the visit of the Saudi Prince Saud to Jerusalem and Jaffa [28]. Although Zionist forms of propaganda, specifically news reels, continued until the late 1960s. With the Palestinian Nakba of 1948 and the declaration of the state of Israel, many Palestinians started to leave Palestine and there were no records of any Palestinian films at the time. However, there was an Egyptian film that was made called Girl from Palestine (1948) that discussed this issue . Following the political instabilities in Palestine, the Palestine Liberation Organization was formed in 1964 [15]. Still, most of the film-related operations of Palestinian filmmakers were happening outside the country. In 1968, the Palestinian Film Unit was founded in Jordan and the some films were being created in exile in Lebanon where many Palestinians found refuge [15]. The first film created by the Palestinian Film Unit in Jordan was a documentary called No Peaceful Solution! (1968). After creating a few films in Jordan, there were some tensions between Jordanian Authorities and the Palestinian resistance movement, that lead to the film unit to be relocated to Lebanon [11].

By simply reading the titles of the films that the Palestinians were making at the time, the revolutionary mindsets and intentions were very clear. Some examples include, Why We Plant Roses, Why We Carry Weapons (1973), The Guns Will Never Keep Quiet (1973) and The Guns are Unified (1974). Regardless, by 1982, there were more than sixty movies that were created and almost all of them were documentaries [28]. However, in 1987, the first feature-length fiction film that was filmed in historic Palestine was released called, Wedding in Galilee, by Michel Khleifi. This introduced post-revolutionary filmmaking that contained more experimental and fiction films (and elements) [11]. Unfortunately, even then, Palestine did not posses the resources and infrastructure neither to create nor to distribute their films to their native audiences [11]. To this very day, the industry is slowly growing and more recently, two of their films have been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film: Omar (2013) and Paradise Now (2005) (both by director Hany Abu-Assad) [29].

Because a great part of the Palestinian population is scattered around the world, and due to political turmoil in the country, Palestine does not have the necessary governmental or private support to sustain its own film industry and therefore the few Palestinian filmmakers heavily rely on regional and international institutions which they most of the time have access to because of their dual nationality [30] . Nonetheless, as a result of the Palestinian diaspora around the world, there have been numerous film festivals dedicated to the Palestinian theme which are located in foreign cities such as London[31], Doha[32], or even Chicago[33].

Notable Directors and Films[edit]

Notable Directors Notable Films Notes
Morey Rosenberg The First Film of Palestine (1911) First film made in Palestine, but was not by a Palestinian.
Mustafa Abu ‘ Ali No Peaceful Solution! (1968)
Michel Khleifi Wedding in Galilee (1987) First feature-length fiction film that was filmed in historic Palestine.
Hany Abu-Assad Paradise Now (2005) First film to be nominated for an Academy Award.
Hany Abu-Assad Omar (2013) Nominated for an Academy Award.
Annemarie Jacir Wajib (2017) Nominated for a Golden Leopard.
Elia Suleiman Divine Intervention (2002) Cannes Jury Prize.

Qatar[edit]

History of the industry[edit]

Qatar's current exhibition and distribution scheme is encouraged by a high demand of film viewing in theatres in addition to widespread online viewing, with the latter encourage theatrical visits from entertainment seekers in Qatar [25] In 2017 only, there was a surge of 50 cinemas across Qatar in only 6 months as there was a rise of 35% in moviegoers across the nation [34]. The exhibition landscape is competitively shared between worldwide exhibitors such as Novo, Vox and Gulf Media but also localy based theatres such as Landmark and Doha cinema (Souq Waqif).


Qatar's current contemporary cinema infrastructure includes its national film center charged of local and regional development of the film scene along with a competitive distribution and growing theatrical distribution landscape.c

Doha Film Institute was created by Sheikha Al-Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani's [35]initiative in 2010 to primarily foster a film culture and industry for Qatar's 2030 vision of a knowledge based economy but also to alternatively enhance the region's film industry. It does so primarily through grants, workshops, labs and development activities[36] which aims at the local Qatari talent's development but is also open to regional MENA talent. For its first initiatives, Doha Film Institute partnered with the Tribeca Enterprise to launch the Doha Tribeca Film Festival which aimed to foster a grassroot film industry but was ended after four years to make way to other initiatives such as the annual Qumra (five editions) and the Ajyal Film Festival (7 editions). The Doha Film Insitute's new trajectory with its new initiatives is to focus its efforts fostering interest from an early in the local community, thus the children based judging for the Ajyal Film Festival. It is also to strengthen the making and appeal of its annually granted projects through the Qumra projects>

Qatar does not have feature films made by local talent but has on the other hand many funded films which won prestigious awards. The following is a list of notable films financed by Qatar.

Notable directors and films (funded)[edit]

Notable Directors Notable Films Notes
Asghar Farhadi The Salesman (2014) Oscar Winning
Nadine Labaki Where Do We Go Now (2013), Capernaum (2018) Oscar Nominated
Naji Abu Nawar Theeb (2016) Oscar Nominated and BAFTA Winning
Abderrahmane Sissako Timbuktu (2014) Caesar Winning, Oscar nominated
Hany Abu-Assad Omar (2013) Nominated for an Academy Award.

Saudi Arabia[edit]

History of the Industry[edit]

Initially, Saudi Arabia did not refute the idea of movie theatres and did allow independent improvised cinemas which functioned outside government interference [37]. It is argued that the first contact Saudi Arabia had with cinema as a whole was through the screening of Egyptian films of the golden era and Turkish melodramas in improvised cinemas during the 1980s [37]. Later on, this move was blocked for concerns that cinema would interfere with religious public and private life, therefore leading in a total cinema blackout during the 1990s and early 2000s, the exception being the Imax system instated by Khalid in the city of Khobar which only displayed scientific and religious oriented content.

With the rise of digital and social network, pressure was mounting on Saudi Arabia in regards to the permissibility of cinemas as many were watching films online anyways. In 2005, an improvised cinema in Riyadh was officially opened for limited to men and children only to prevent mixing in the space [38]. In 2017, efforts led by the King's son and crown prince, Mohamed Bin Salman, targeted the enhancement of the entertainment sector in Saudi Arabia and therefore prepare for the venue of a theatrical and cinema infrastructure in Saudi Arabia [39].

The kingdoms filmography started in 2004 with an approval from the ministry of culture but a location shoot in the UAE. What followed was a small string of local talent counting on foreign exhibitions to showcase their work:


Notable Directors Notable Films
Abdullah Al-Muheisen Shadow Of Silence (2004)
Haifaa al-Mansour Wadja (2014)
Mahmoud Sabbagh Baraka Meets Baraka (2016)


Notes:[edit]

Suggested reading[edit]

  • Walter Armbrust, Mass Culture and Modernism in Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
  • Roy Armes, Postcolonial Images: Studies in North African Film (Bloomington/Indianapolis: Indiana University Press (2005).
  • Savaş Arslan, Cinema in Turkey: a New Critical History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 237-73.
  • Gönül Dönmez-Colin, Turkish Cinema: Identity, Distance and Belonging (London: Reaktion Books, 2
  • Lizbeth Malkmus and Roy Armes, Arab & African Film Making (Zed: London, 1991).
  • Hamid Reza Sadr, Iranian Cinema: a Political History (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006).
  • Viola Shafik, Arab Cinema: History and Cultural Identity (Cairo/New York: American University in Cairo Press, 1988).
  • Viola Shafik, Popular Egyptian Cinema: Gender, Class, and Nation (Cairo/New York: American University in Cairo Press, 2007).
  • Richard Tapper (ed.), The New Iranian Cinema (London: I.B. Tauris, 2001).

References[edit]

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  2. ^ a b c d e Khatib, Lina (2008). Lebanese Cinema: Imagining the Civil War and Beyond. New York: I.B. Tauris & Company, Limited. pp. 21–32. ISBN 9781845116286.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Shafik, Viola (1961). Arab cinema : history and cultural identity (Revised and updated ed.). Cairo: The American University of Cairo Press. ISBN 9789774166907. OCLC 961355322.
  4. ^ Livingston, David (Winter 2008–2009). "Lebanese Cinema". Film Quarterly. LXII (2): 34–43 – via http://search.proquest.com/fiafindex/docview/1746358507/61B1115C17724346PQ/1. {{cite journal}}: External link in |via= (help)CS1 maint: date format (link)
  5. ^ "Film Funds | AFI". Retrieved 2019-04-18.
  6. ^ "The 2018 Beirut International Film Festival Has a Major Announcement". Vogue Arabia. 2018-09-06. Retrieved 2019-04-18.
  7. ^ "Media Industries in the Middle East, 2016". www.mideastmedia.org. Retrieved 2019-04-19.
  8. ^ "List of Lebanese submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film", Wikipedia, 2019-01-22, retrieved 2019-03-16
  9. ^ Suleiman, Walid (2014). "Petra...The First Cinema in Amman in 1935". Al Rai.
  10. ^ Erika, Balsom (2017). After uniqueness: a history of film and video art in circulation. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231543125. OCLC 980849485.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i Leaman, Oliver (2001). Companion encyclopedia of Middle Eastern and North African film. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415187036. OCLC 45466264.
  12. ^ Abed Suleiman, Ahmad; Eid Haddad, Ghassan; Fayyd Alrabaat, Ali (2015). "Problematic of Identifying the Cinema Film Genre – The Film "Struggle in Jarash" as a Model" (PDF). Jordanian Journal of the Arts. 8 (1): 1–14.
  13. ^ Hassan, Najeh (2009). "Department of arts screens the first Jordanian narrative film (Struggles in Jerash)". Al Rai.
  14. ^ Potter, George (2016-01-02). "(De)constructing Nationalist Imagery: Jordanian Cinema in Times of Crisis". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (1): 21–39. doi:10.1080/13530194.2015.1060152. ISSN 1353-0194. S2CID 159604964.
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  17. ^ "List of Jordanian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film", Wikipedia, 2018-10-30, retrieved 2019-03-16
  18. ^ ":: The Royal Film Commission ::". www.film.jo. Retrieved 2019-04-18.
  19. ^ "Jordan Film Locations You Can See For Yourself". Valerie & Valise. 2016-08-19. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
  20. ^ a b Elnaccash, Ataa (1968). "Egyptian Cinema: A Historical Outline". African Arts. 2 (1): 52–71. doi:10.2307/3334315. JSTOR 3334315 – via JSTOR.
  21. ^ Bouzid, Nouri; El Ezabi, Shereen (1995). "New Realism in Arab Cinema: The Defeat-Conscious Cinema". Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics (15): 242–250. JSTOR 521690 – via JSTOR.
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  35. ^ "Al-Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani", Wikipedia, 2019-02-04, retrieved 2019-03-20
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  37. ^ a b "Revival of Cinema Sparks Debate in Saudi Arabia". MEMRI. Retrieved 2019-03-20.
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  39. ^ www.thenewsminute.com https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/cinema-returns-saudi-arabia-after-35-years-first-theatre-open-april-79102. Retrieved 2019-03-21. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)


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